may be driven by other factors that affect marital status at birth, post-conception marriage decisions, and later child … outcomes, rather than causal effects of family structure. Given that changes in the availability of men in the marriage market … should affect marriage decisions, we use incarceration rates for men as an instrumental variable for family structure in …

, ethnicity, and gender in the United States. However, the data necessary to detect possible discrimination and to act to counter … it is not publicly available - in particular, data on racial, ethnic, and gender disparities within specific companies … measure the racial, ethnic, and gender composition of company workforces. We use predictive tools based on both names and …