Identity multiplicity among the Muslim second generation in European cities: Where are religious and ethnic identities compatible or conflicting with civic identities?

Drawing on recent cross-nationally comparative survey data of the Turkish and Moroccan second generation in five European cities, this study examines the patterns of identification with ethnic, religious, national and city identities. We take a comparative perspective and analyse data from five cities (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Brussels and Stockholm) that differ markedly in their policy approach to the integration of immigrants, the socio-economic position of the second generation and the political climate confronting ethnic and religious minorities. The analysis focuses on the question of how the Turkish and Moroccan second generation combines their ethnic and religious minority identities with identification with the country and city of residence. As European national identities are - to a greater extent than is the case for US American national identity - implicitly tied to and appropriated by the national majority group, we hypothesise that national identities will be non-inclusive of ethnic and religious identification, thus resulting in a negative correlation between Dutch/Belgian/Swedish identity on the one hand and Turkish/Moroccan and Muslim identities on the other. In contrast, we expect a positive correlation with identification with the city of residence, as Europe's cities are more diverse in terms of their population composition, have a more cosmopolitan outlook and are to a lesser extent dominated by one group of the population than the nationstates in which they are located. Secondly, we hypothesise that distinct identification patterns will be related to the modes of incorporation of the second generation, such that identity compatibility (i.e., positive associations between ethnic and religious identities on the one hand and national and city identities on the other) instead of identity conflict (i.e., negative associations) will be more often found in more favourable contexts of reception.