Same End by Different Means : Google, Amazon, Microsoft and Facebook's Strategies to Dominate Artificial Intelligence

I analyse US Big Tech strategies to dominate frontier artificial intelligence (AI) by quantitatively and qualitatively comparing how they manage knowledge in their respective AI corporate innovation system (CIS). I propose “frenemies” to describe Microsoft’s strategy because many Chinese organizations and even direct competitors integrate its CIS. “University” symbolises Google’s strategy, given its focus on fundamental AI, its central place in the AI research field and appropriation mechanisms that are not translating into clear business advantages. “Secrecy” defines Amazon’s strategy, maximizing knowledge inflows while minimizing outflows to profit from AI. Facebook, with the narrowest AI CIS, exhibits an “application-centred” strategy