Solidarity challenges in EU refugee policymaking : a comparison of the Yugoslav, Syrian, and Ukrainian Crises

Refugee protection in Europe is characterized by free-riding and a highly inequitable distribution of responsibilities across EU member states. Refugee protection as a public good suffers from collective action challenges that have contributed to the under-provision of refugee protection willingness. Protection inequities have persisted over the past 30 years and across the three largest refugee crises despite EU solidarity initiatives. The effectiveness of such initiatives has remained limited as the EU has struggled to develop policies that go beyond voluntary (and often symbolic) responsibility sharing initiatives. To become more effective in addressing refugee disparities, the EU should seek to develop more substantive (market-based and mandatory) solidarity initiatives than it does in its recently adopted European Pact on Migration and Asylum.