This paper contributes to current debates surrounding the digital euro and US stablecoins by unpacking the present day relevance of two important episodes in monetary history: Prussia's effort in the 18th century to implement a uniform coinage standard across the Holy Roman Empire, and the 19th...

This article examines the EU-law challenges arising from the use of artificial intelligence for payment initiation and execution (“Payment Agents”) under European Union law. It focuses on Payment Agents that support purchasing workflows and are capable of initiating payments in both...

This document is a study performed by the JRC to support an analysis of DG-Competition concerning online payment systems. The report provides a high-level overview of online payments in the EU, including payment cards, mobile wallets, bank transfers, and other methods, as well as an examination...

The use of electronic currency for transactions, denoting a cashless paradigm, has become increasingly common. However, this financial innovation is not prevalent in all countries. This study aims to explain the discrepancies across countries, including individual and country factors. It may be...