Access to critical raw materials (CRMs) is increasingly being shaped by geopolitical dynamics, fuelling a global competition for supply security. This paper applies the gravity model of trade to examine how OECD countries leverage Aid for Trade (AfT), Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs), and...

The empirical evidence for the so-called pollution haven hypothesis, which predicts that inter-country differences in environmental policy stringency will cause pollution-intensive production to relocate to countries with lax environmental standards, has traditionally been weak. However, in...