Information and communication technology (ICT) can boost existing socio-economic inequalities if the former is socially exclusive. Longstanding barriers prevent minoritized populations from accessing ICT, thus leading to a vicious circle between digital divide and poor development. The digital...

We use a novel dataset of online advertiser performance and product sales to quantify the medium-term economic effects of Apple's App Tracking Transparency Policy (ATT). We find that ATT significantly degraded the ability by Facebook advertisers to target advertisements based on its off-platform...