violence in turn increases the income of the protection providers. The result is a violence multiplier. Combining elements from … example, a decrease in the cost of violence increases violence more than pari passu and increases the value of being a … criminal. The violence multiplier also generates an incentive for the protection providers to welcome new partners into the …

reduces both moderate and extreme violence. The reason is that a high penalty keeps relatively 'gutless' individuals from … relatively 'tough' individuals to commit moderately violent acts and so makes moderate violence more attractive for otherwise …