This study endeavours to investigate the effect of military expenditure on economic growth in ten major countries of the world, which collectively contributed 75.2 per cent to global military expenditure in 2022. The period of study is 30 years, from 1992 to 2022, determined solely based on the...

In the face of wars and a geopolitically challenging environment, military expenditures have once again become political focal points in developed countries. However, the scientific literature remains inconclusive regarding their impact on economic growth. This paper conducts a meticulous...

Military expenditure is considered an influential factor in gross domestic product. This study investigates the relationship between military expenditure and gross domestic product in Bangladesh. Time series data, econometric techniques, and some robustness tests are used in this analysis. The...

This study assesses the importance of military expenditure in moderating the role of insecurity dynamics on tourist arrivals or international tourism in 163 countries. It is framed to assess how the future of international tourism can be improved when military expenditure is used as a tool to...

CO2 significantly contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This investigation determines the impact of militarization, economic growth (EG), FDI, renewable energy usage on CO2 emissions in three highly militarized countries of Asia: Pakistan, India, and China (PIC). This research used...

The member states of the European Union are once again arguing about money. More specifically, they are arguing about how much they want to spend on defence, where this money should come from and whether they should spend it jointly. That Europe needs to defend itself better is not in dispute in...

Civil wars often erode state sovereignty, as institutions are replaced or co-opted by armed groups that establish informal governance structures. Among these, rebel taxation emerges as a key tool for financing wartime activities and administering territories. We explore whether rebel taxation...

European security is in danger. Despite some successes, overall progress in strengthening defences has been slow. Europeans still face critical shortfalls in areas such as long-range strike, air defence, intelligence and surveillance. Without more coordination, Europeans will waste much of their...

European security is in danger. Despite some successes, overall progress in strengthening defences has been slow. Europeans still face critical shortfalls in areas such as long-range strike, air defence, intelligence and surveillance. Without more coordination, Europeans will waste much of their...

This study analyzes the determinants and dynamics of military spending in the Middle East within the framework of critical political economy, based on data covering the period (1995-2023). The analysis combines approaches from political economy, the rentier-authoritarian state theory, and...

Europe's fragmented defence procurement markets undermine Europe's security efforts. Larger procurement markets, by contrast, deliver sharper competition, lower prices, and stronger incentives for specialisation and technological progress. Using data from the EU's Tender Electronic Daily (TED),...

The current US administration plans to protect the entire territory of the United States against any potential air or missile attack. The focus is on deploying large satel­lite constellations capable of detecting and intercepting long-range missiles shortly after launch. Even if only a fraction...

Research background: At the NATO Wales Summit in 2014, European allies agreed to spend at least 2% of GDP on defence.1 However, the break-out of the Russo-Ukrainian war increased EU countries efforts to spend more on military capability not only because of solidarity in the alliance, but also as...

We provide the first global, long-run analysis of how governments fund and de-fund military spending. Constructing a panel of 167 countries from 1817 to 2024, we estimate fiscal responses to armaments and disarmaments, including wartime shifts. Deficit spending is the primary financing policy,...

The aim of this study is to analyze the effects of terrorism on gender inequality in politics for a panel of 180 countries over the period 2000-2020. Using generalized method of moments in a system, the results obtained reveal that terrorism reduces women's political representation, thereby...

In 2024, total defence expenditure by the 27 EU Member States reached €343 billion, marking a 19% increase from 2023, bringing defence expenditure to 1.9% of GDP. Estimated data suggests that Member States may reach beyond the 2% NATO guideline in 2025, to €392 billion (current prices,...

In 2024, total defence expenditure by the 27 EU Member States reached €343 billion, marking a 19% increase from 2023, bringing defence expenditure to 1.9% of GDP. Estimated data suggests that Member States may reach beyond the 2% NATO guideline in 2025, to €392 billion (current prices,...

Canada and other members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) are facing higher defence-spending targets in response to growing geopolitical tensions. NATO's 2025 Hague Summit Declaration requires member states to increase their defence spending to five percent of their GDP by 2035....

National defence is a quintessential public good which generates welfare but does not have a market price to be used for its valuation. This study uses non-market valuation, namely a discrete choice experiment, to enhance the understanding of how individuals' perceptions of threat influence...

Using a short- and long-term macroeconomic forecasts, we estimate the cost of the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine for countries in Eastern Europe, Caucasus, and Central Asia. Shortly after the Russian attack, the projected cost (cumulative over six years) stood at $2.44 trillion for the...

Expanding military personnel and expenditure depends on public support and social legitimacy. Crisis events such as 9/11 and the 2014 annexation of Crimea have influenced public attitudes toward military investment, with support intensifying significantly after Russia's full-scale invasion of...

Operational autonomy should be achieved through developing integrated command systems, rather than simply procuring weapons: great powers direct operations. Direct deterrence must be achieved through investments in conventional forces, which can reduce but not replace reliance on US nuclear...

Research & development (R&D) subsidies, especially defense R&D spending, raise private R&D investment (a crowd-in effect). Public R&D funding increases employment without driving up wages. Supported industries see gains in productivity. International spillovers amplify the impact across...

This paper investigates the expansion of EU military activities, involving the European Commission, other EU-related institutions and Member States. Expenditure on EU military programmes - defence-related R&D, arms production, joint procurement, military mobility, and the supply of lethal...

This report updates and expands the data-driven work of our initial study from September 2024, which concluded that Europe would only be fit for war in several decades. We show that the situation today is even more concerning if Europe aims to be fit for war by 2030. First, Russia continues to...

Europe faces a dual crisis of growing security threats and declining economic competitiveness. Increased defence spending offers an opportunity to address both challenges. Through initiatives such as ReArm Europe and NATO's 5% pledge, EU Member States are committing substantial resources to...