Critical elements for a successful energy transition : a systematic review

The transition to a low-carbon energy future requires large amounts of many raw materials. Some of these materials are deemed critical in terms of their limited availability, concentrated supply chain networks, associated environmental impact, and various social issues. Acknowledging the significant dependency on raw materials for future energy scenarios, this paper presents a systematic review of the existing literature to identify the barriers, solutions proposed and the current research gaps associated with the supply of a range of critical chemical elements. The focus was mainly on evaluating supply risk in light of raw material availability and contemporary extraction technologies. Results indicate that a transition to a low-carbon energy system is possible, but will require efforts to address supply concerns, and strategic planning. A key risk mitigation strategy is increasing material circularity, especially to cope with the growth in demand for cobalt in lithium-ion batteries, platinum used in fuel cells and electrolysers, iridium used in electrolysers and dysprosium used in permanent magnets. Copper was found to be possibly the most concerning critical element due to the expected demand from developing nations in addition to the demand for the energy transition. The geopolitical, social, and environmental risks for lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements and platinum group metals could also hinder future energy security, as demand for these elements continues to grow.