Fooling ourselves and others : confirmation bias and the trustworthiness of qualitative research – Part 1 (the threats)

Purpose: To describe the implicit epistemic flaw of “confirmation bias” and to illustrate and evaluate the threats to qualitative research trustworthiness from that bias. Design/methodology/approach: The article overviews evidence and analysis from a wide range of disciplines. The adverse effect of three varieties of confirmation bias is described in some detail in illustrative examples. Findings: It is argued that the threats from the bias go to the heart of the research. A subsequent article summarizes and critiques counter-arguments. Practical implications: Discussions and illustrations of varieties of confirmation bias can increase awareness of the unwitting bias and reduce its influence. Social implications: The bias not only threatens the trustworthiness of academic and other professional research but also underpins much ideological extremism, the effectiveness of post-truth politics and inter- and intra-group conflict. These are directly discussed in the article. Originality/value: The article extends and enriches descriptions of threats to the trustworthiness of qualitative from confirmation bias. Such threats are inadequately recognized in many qualitative research arenas. It identifies a previously unrecognized variety of confirmation bias: hollow citations.