Integration I(d) of Nonstationary Time Series: Stationary and nonstationary increments

The method of cointegration in regression analysis is based on an assumption of stationary increments. Stationary increments with fixed time lag are called integration I(d). A class of regression models where cointegration works was identified by Granger and yields the ergodic behavior required for equilibrium expectations in standard economics. Detrended finance market returns are martingales, and martingales do not satisfy regression equations. We extend the standard discussion to discover the class of detrended processes beyond standard regression models that satisfy integration I(d). In the language of econometrics, the models of interest are unit root models, meaning martingales. Typical martingales do not have stationary increments, and those that do generally do not admit ergodicity. Our analysis leads us to comment on the lack of equilibrium observed earlier between FX rates and relative price levels.