Of the bovine ilk: Quantifying the welfare of dairy cattle in history, 1750-1900

We seek to understand the welfare of dairy cattle in Denmark from 1750 to 1900, a period marked by significant agricultural development and industrialization. By applying contemporary animal welfare metrics to historical data, we uncover a detailed picture of how bovine welfare evolved. Our findings reveal a complex pattern of both improvements and declines in welfare over time, influenced by changes in farming practices such as feeding, housing, and health management. Our work contributes to a deeper understanding of the nexus of economic progress and animal welfare, highlighting the historical complexities of agricultural practices and their impact on animal welfare.