The "Double Negative" Effect on Earnings of Limited Language Proficiency among Immigrants in Canada.

This paper analyzes the effects of language practice on earnings among adult male immigrants in Canada using the 1991 Census. Three languages groups are considered: those unable to conduct a conversation in an official language; those who can but who usually speak a non-official language at home; and those who can and who usually speak an official language at home. Earnings and the effects of schooling and pre-immigration labor market experience on earnings are shown to be lower among immigrants who do not speak an official language at home, implying a distinct "double negative" effect of limited official language proficiency.