In order to meet the Paris Agreement climate goals and spurred by increasing concern over the adverse impacts of climate change, governments and organizations around the world are calling for the transition and transformation of the energy sector away from fossil fuel extraction and toward renewable energy resources. Vital to this transition are the minerals and elements that power renewable energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, electric vehicle (EV) batteries, and electric transmission lines. Copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, aluminum, silver, and rare earth elements are several of the minerals essential to the production of these technologies. These “transition minerals” are critical to a cleaner energy future. Despite the growing need for transition minerals, domestic mining operations often face local opposition due to the potential for significant adverse environmental impacts associated with mining. Furthermore, many North American mineral reserves are in ecologically protected or culturally significant areas. However, relying on mineral imports as a substitute for domestic production raises its own concerns, as mines in many developing nations have poor track records regarding human rights abuses and the use of child labor, can fund rebel groups and sow conflict, and may result in greater adverse environmental impacts due to relaxed regulations and weak enforcement authority. To make matters worse, mines in impoverished regions do not always provide benefits for local communities. This chapter explores the economic, security, human rights, and environmental issues associated with the growing need for transition minerals. It introduces the relevant background information on the minerals used to develop renewable energy equipment and infrastructure, explores how the future demand for these minerals will change as we transition to a low-carbon future, and describes the countries and regions where minerals used in renewable energy technology are currently mined and produced. It also explores the environmental and social concerns associated with domestic and international mining as well as the legal and political challenges mining companies and renewable energy industries face based on these concerns. It then evaluates potential approaches to respond to the growing demand for transition minerals, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. First, it considers the reasonableness of efforts to increase production of transition minerals both domestically and abroad and explores how this can be done in a socially responsible way. Second, it stresses that in addition to any increased production, advancement of a circular economy that focuses first and foremost on the recycling and reuse of minerals is key to any carbon-free future. Third, it considers new technologies and developments that may alleviate some of the present mineral resource constraints
