The digital transition in educational testing has introduced many new opportunities for technology to enhance large-scale assessments. These include the potential to collect and use log data on test-taker response processes routinely, and on a large scale. Process data has long been recognised...

A novel approach to the assessment of literacy is used to tackle the issue of effectiveness of years of schooling. The dichotomy inherent in the literacy rate is rejected in favor of a “practice-based” approach, which considers literacy as a multifaceted phenomenon as advocated in...

There is a growing consensus that the dichotomous categories of literate and illiterate should be abandoned. However, the dichotomy has considerable utility in the analysis of educational achievements and inequality in developing countries. Statistics on functional adult literacy are intended to...