This Article explores the original meaning of the word “Emolument(s)” in the Constitution. It identifies four common definitions in founding-era political discourse. It places the constitutional use within its context as part of a larger reform movement in Britain and America and as driven...

This Article recreates the original definitions of the U.S. Constitution's terms “tax,” “direct tax,” “duty,” “impost,” “excise,” and “tonnage.” It draws on a greater range of Founding-Era sources than accessed heretofore, including eighteenth-century treatises, tax...

The Constitution’s original meaning is its meaning to those ratifying the document during a discrete time period: from its adoption by the Constitutional Convention in late 1787 until Rhode Island’s ratification on May 29, 1790. Reconstructing it requires historical skills, including a...

The Roman Emperor Trajan is justly celebrated as an author of several modern civil rights, such as the right to confront one's accusers. But he is most aptly remembered as the ruler who proved that fiduciary government was possible. Following the example of Trajan's reign could improve greatly...

This paper examines the original understanding behind the U.S. Constitution's controversial "General Welfare Clause." Based on Founding-Era word usage, public representations by advocates of the Constitution, and other historical evidence, the paper concludes that the General Welfare Clause is a...

Courts testing the constitutionality of federal campaign finance laws usually focus on First Amendment issues. More fundamental, however, is the question of whether campaign finance laws are within Congress's enumerated power to regulate the "Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections." This...

The Supreme Court's modern interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause in the realm of interstate commerce is textually problematic, unfaithful to the Constitution's original meaning, and contains positive incentives for Congress to over-regulate. The Necessary and Proper Clause was...

This Article surveys the use of the word quot;commercequot; in Anglo-American law as it existed at the time of the American Founding. The goal is to determine the probable intended scope of the word quot;commercequot; in the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The survey relies on computer...

This Article addresses whether the American Founders expected evidence of their own subjective views to guide future interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. The Article considers a range of evidence largely overlooked or misunderstood in earlier studies, such as contemporaneous rules of legal...