to various skills - including literacy, numeracy, foreign language, and field-specific skills. Graduates of academic …

and national budgets—despite certain limitations—this study explores long-term disparities through the lens of numeracy, a … proxy for basic arithmetic skills. We analyse numeracy levels by race across cohorts born between the 1850s and the 1980s … show clear and persistent gaps in numeracy by race and gender, with Black individuals and women consistently disadvantaged …

-treatment levels of numeracy. Despite the additional effort required by the program, we can rule out any slowdown in the progress of …