This paper introduces modern readers to ‘banking theory’, that is, to the understanding of the banking system that was held by academics and practitioners in the early years of the twentieth century. This theory contrasts with the theoretic framework that views banks as intermediaries that...

Joint liability loans are used in various settings, including business partnerships, agricultural cooperatives, and real estate investment. Most notably, they have been central to the microfinance model since the 1970s. Despite early promises, recent evidence suggests that joint liability has...

There were 53 ELD occurrences in Latvia up to the end of 2021. Compared with other Member States, the level of enforcement of national ELD legislation is moderate to good.1 This is due in large part to the implementation and enforcement of national ELD legislation for all land, water and...

There were six ELD occurrences in Ireland from the time that the ELD was transposed into Irish law on 1 April 2009 until 30 September 2021. Three of these occurrences involved an imminent threat of environmental damage, of which two were for biodiversity damage and one was for water damage....