Ethnic fractionalization has both positive and negative consequences. It is contended that the positive effects due to skill complementarity in the production process apply to large firms that have more complex and diversified production structures. Because small businesses rely more on public...

This study analyzes the difference in the decline in sales between small and medium-size enterprises and large firms (the "gap") following the outbreak of COVID-19 in 19 developing countries. The decline in sales as a percentage of the pre-pandemic level was bigger for small and medium-size...

Women often face more hurdles than men in obtaining finance. This is especially so when credit supply is limited and financial markets are less developed. As a result, owners of firms may prefer men over women as top managers of their firms, widening the gender gap in top manager positions. This...

Theory suggests several ways in which exporting may benefit women's employment. However, the empirical evidence is mixed and limited, especially for developing countries. This paper uses firm-level survey data for 91 developing countries to estimate the relationship between exporting and the...

The informal sector is an important source of livelihoods and jobs for a vast majority of people in developing countries. However, there is concern that the informal sector may undermine job creation in the formal sector. According to the "parasite" view of informality, informal firms can...

A commonly held view is that female-owned businesses suffer from many disadvantages compared to male-owned businesses. These disadvantages lead, in turn, to relatively lower levels of efficiency and smaller firm-size among female-owned businesses-the female owned firms under-performance...