Old-age pension systems can be classified according to three aspects: funded versus unfunded systems (pay-as-you-go), actuarial versus non-actuarial systems, and defined benefit (DB) versus defined contribution (DC) systems.Several European countries have (or had) public old-age pension schemes...

Expanding private pension plans coverage is seen as an alternative to address the growing pension gap. Indeed, due to recent reforms, lower public pension system replacement rates are expected for future generations of retirees. However, in most countries, private provision remains voluntary and...

Demographic developments are unfavourable for the financing of pension schemes in most OECD countries, implying continued growth in pension expenditure in virtually all OECD countries. This chapter examines the vulnerability of pension systems, with an emphasis on financial sustainability and...

Countries in Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe (CESE) face the challenge of becoming "demographically old before being economically rich". Ensuring the long-term stability and adequacy of pension systems was one of the most important tasks that these countries faced following economic...

This chapter demonstrates the importance for insurance and pension companies of correctly measuring mortality and life expectancy. The analysis focuses on mortality at higher ages (65–95), in line with an interest in pension-related applications where the risk associated with longer-term cash...

Demographic changes and social transformations affect the design of public pension systems. Population ageing and factors such as the progressive reduction in fertility rates and the increase in longevity have a direct impact on the sustainability of public pensions, especially in...