The state price density is a second derivative of the discounted European options prices with respect to the strike price. We use Maximum Likelihood method to derive a simple estimator of the curve such that it is decreasing, convex and its second derivative integrates to one. Confidence...

The simultaneous unwinding of leveraged positions can trigger financial market turbulence. Although balance-sheet measures of leverage are available, it is useful to construct a measure of leverage that incorporates both on- and off-balance-sheet activities. This paper provides measures of...