The authors interpret fluctuations in GNP and unemployment as due to two types of disturbances: disturbances that have a permanent effect on output and disturbances that do not. They interpret the first as supply disturbances, the second as demand disturbances. Demand disturbances have a...

This paper analyzes the panel data of biweekly surveys on the yen/dollar exchange rate expectations of forty-four institutions for two years and contains four major findings. First, market participants are heterogeneous; that is, significant "individual effects" exist in their expectation...

Asian countries still have the IMF stigma, which originates from the experiences of the Asian crisis of 1997-98. The feeling of being unfairly treated grew even stronger afterward. The Asian countries built large foreign reserves, carried out structural reforms, and became even stronger than...