In statistics, samples are drawn from a population in a data-generating process (DGP). Standard errors measure the uncertainty in sample estimates of population parameters. In science, evidence is generated to test hypotheses in an evidence-generating process (EGP). We claim that EGP variation...

Here are three reasons. (a) This paper proves that the popular investor-level herding measure is a biased estimator of herding. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate that the measure underestimates herding by 20% to 100% of the estimation target. (b) The bias varies with the number of traders...

The reliability of established trade classification algorithms that identify the liquidity demander in financial markets transaction data has been questioned due to an increase in the frequency of quote changes. Hence, this paper proposes a new method. While established algorithms rely on an ad...