We investigate how Reconstruction affected Black political participation and socioeconomic advancement after the American Civil War. We use the location of federal troops and Freedmen’s Bureau offices to indicate more intensive federal enforcement of civil rights. We find greater political...

This study investigates the evolution of market integration in Ottoman Eastern Mediterranean and Europe until World War I. We find that market integration levels were the highest in northwest Europe while Ottoman lands were part of the less integrated periphery. Over the centuries, most European...