Expansionary monetary policy is ineffective in a liquidity trap. In another case, which we call a “reserve trap,” money supply increase is trapped in bank reserves; there is no credit expansion through the banking system. In such case, quantitative easing (QE) will not boost credit to the...

Policy makers often resort to Keynesian fiscal stimulus to try to stabilize the economy after a major economic downturn. This is nearly always financed with deficit spending and thus debt (under the rubric of quantitative easing11Some note that “quantitative easing” is a modern euphemism...

All foreign holders of U.S. dollars currencies face significant risk of unfavorable currency exchange movements, proportional to the amounts they hold. Some of these risks can be hedged to an extent, but the costs of doing so can be significant, and errors in execution or maintenance of the...