Empirical evidence of the marginal deterrent effect is provided. Exploring a data set of kidnapping crimes in Italy between 1960 and 2012, changes in Italian policy regarding sanctions for kidnapping and their associated impact on murders is considered. Deaths associated with kidnappings...

Homicide trials in Classical Athens had a unique feature. After the initial evidence was presented the defendant was given the option to go into a self-imposed exile for life losing all protections, rights, and wealth. If the defendant did not go into exile, then the trial continued with...