This paper estimates the treatment effect of grade repetition on subsequent schooling performances in France. We correct for potential selection issues associated with grade retention, using a multi-stage econometric model. We find that early grade repetition (Grade 1 or 2) leads to an increase...

How to motivate academically struggling students? For those tracked in the vocational stream in France, two alternatives paths are competing: full-time vocational training and apprenticeship. Little research has been done on comparing the effectiveness of these two competing templates as ways to...