the attendant social costs, but also reflects a partial failure of some of the justifications for punishment. As a result …, incapacitation and retributive notions may dominate our thinking about punishment, with predictable results. This essay looks at the …. The essay suggests that the passion for equal treatment among those who commit the same crime, a prominent goal of the …

results in more lenient punishment. Despite such concerns, the effect of vacancies is rarely tested directly and related …

Whether punishment promotes or deters future criminal activity by the convicted offender is a key public policy concern … networks in prison. On the other hand, greater initial punishment may have a deterrence effect on the individual being punished …

Becker's theory of crime, penalties must be at least as high as expected benefits to deter crimes. For example, we start by … multiplying cartel infringement by the reciprocal of the probability of detection and punishment. When we factor in expected … personal benefits. In theory, deterrence to participate in cartel activities must be based both on the incentives of firms as a …

to the seriousness of the crime committed. Specifically, at the lowest penalty levels, a one-month increase in the …