We survey both academic and proprietary models to examine how macroeconomic and systematic risk effects are incorporated into measures of credit risk exposure. Many models consider the correlation between the probability of default (PD) and cyclical factors.(...)

This paper has examined two specific aspects of stage 1 of the (BIS´s) Bank for International Settlement´s proposed reforms to the 8% risk-based capital ratio.(...)

Retail loan markets create special challenges for credit risk assessment. Borrowers tend to be informationally opaque and borrow relatively infrequently.(...)