Purpose – We attempt to incorporate the effect of changes in circumstances over time, which are usually approximated by parental education or occupation. We claim that the relative level of parental schooling is a better measure than the absolute level of education since parents' circumstances...

Studies on wage discrimination assume that independent observers are able to distinguish a priori which workers are suffering from discrimination. However, this may not be a good assumption when anti-discrimination laws mean that severe penalties can be imposed on discriminatory employers or...