Several low- and middle-income countries are interested in extending their existing health insurance for specific groups to eventually cover their entire populations. For those countries interested in such an extension, it is important to understand the factors that affect the transition from...

Clear sand adsorbs 15–35% total phosphorus (P) from septic tank effluent, but adsorbed P is mobilized when low-P effluent is then applied. Amorphous P compounds formed by alkali aluminate chemical addition may also be subject to leaching. Crystalline mineralization is the desired end effect...

Processes for removing sewage nitrogen at the individual residential scale must be low-maintenance with only annual service visits. A passive autotrophic process in an upflow configuration, using a 50-50 mixture by volume of: (a) agricultural sulfur for nitrate reduction, and (b) agricultural...

Septic tanks have been used for anaerobic treatment of raw sewage for well over one hundred years, and their basic design has not fundamentally changed over that time. On the other hand, there have been tremendous improvements in our understanding of anaerobic microorganisms and development of...

In recent years, China has seen an unprecedented expansion of health insurance for its population in its quest to achieve universal health coverage. By 2011, 95% of the Chinese population was insured up from less than 50% in 2005 through public or employer-based insurance schemes. As part of...