In the conventional social productive efficiency measurement, a DEA-based non-parametric method is typically employed to identify the piece-wise-linear production possibility frontier. Applying the directional distance-function approach a-la Luenberger (1992) to the production possibility...

In this paper, we attempt to identify the reasons behind the differences in environmental policy between Japan and other developed countries, particularly the US. Japan's environmental policy is unique in that voluntary approaches have been taken to reduce total emissions. This strategy is quite...