Analysts associated with the Cowles Commission attached great importance to the distinction between structural and reduced-form models: in their view structural models, but not reduced-form models, allow the analysis of causal relations. They did not present clear justification for this view....

In continuous-time stochastic calculus a limit in probability is used to extend the definition of the stochastic integral to the case where the integrand is not square-integrable at the endpoint of the time interval under consideration. When the extension is applied to portfolio strategies,...

We explore the sources of household balance sheet adjustment following the collapse of the housing market in 2006. First, we use microdata from the Federal Reserve Board's Senior Loan Officer Opinion Survey to document that banks cumulatively tightened consumer lending standards more in counties...