Previous literature finds that situations that put managers under significant levels of pressure (e.g. IPO, upcoming credit rating changes, violation of debt covenant, etc.) might affect the way earnings are manipulated. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the pressure caused by the...

We examine whether the characteristics of chief financial officers (CFOs) are associated with real earnings management (REM). Using hand-collected data on CFOs’ characteristics, we find that female CFOs and highly visible CFOs are associated with lower levels of REM, while CFOs with an MBA or...