We develop a framework for measuring biases in expectation formation. The basic insight is that under- and overreaction to new information is identified by the impulse response function of forecast errors. This insight leads to a simple and widely applicable measurement procedure. The procedure...

We develop a general framework for measuring biases in expectation formation. The method is based on the insight that biases can be inferred from the response of forecast errors to past news. Empirically, biases are measured by flexibly estimating the impulse response function of forecast...