Parameter estimation based on uncertain data represented as belief structures is one of the latest problems in the Dempster–Shafer theory. In this paper, a novel method is proposed for the parameter estimation in the case where belief structures are uncertain and represented as interval-valued...

How to measure uncertainty is still an open issue. Probability theory is a primary tool to express the aleatoric uncertainty. The Shannon’s information entropy is an effective measure for the uncertainty in probability theory. Dempster–Shafer theory, an extension of probability theory, has...

We investigate how the cooperation emerges in the square lattice when individuals play the prisoner’s dilemma game by adopting different strategy updating methods. First, we classify individuals in two classes at the strategy updating stage: stochastic players and smart players. The stochastic...