This paper analyzes the impact of the measures aimed at protecting residential consumers on the performance of residential retail energy (electricity and gas) markets in Europe. Our sample includes the ten countries that opened up the retail markets to households in electricity, gas, or both,...

After decades of successful growth, economic unions have recently become the focus of heightened political controversy. We argue that this is partly due to the growth of trade between countries that are increasingly dissimilar. We develop a theoretical framework to study the effects on trade,...

After decades of successful growth, economic unions have recently become the focus of heightened political controversy. We argue that this is partly due to the growth of trade between countries that are increasingly dissimilar. We develop a theoretical framework to study the effects on trade,...