direct effect of openness on poverty reduction. The results also suggest that the impact of growth on poverty is greater for … transformation. The standard trade theory postulates that trade openness contributes to poverty alleviation directly by changing … the trade-to-grossdomestic-product ratio to measure openness often fail to find a direct effect of openness on poverty over …

Motivated by a recent World Bank report on achieving of Millennium Development Goals which shows that poverty has been …