Investment-based asset pricing research highlights the role of irreversibility as a determinant of firms' risk and … flexibility (i.e., contraction and expansion options) is to determine the relation between risk and operating leverage: risk … these characteristics in stock returns and risk …

based on introducing stochastic idiosyncratic cash flow risk into an equity valuation model of firms with growth options …. Within our model, a firm's systematic risk depends on the delta of its growth option. The growth option's delta is lower when … idiosyncratic volatility rises, driving down the firm's systematic risk and hence its expected return - firms with higher …

multinationals. Multinational firms are more exposed to risk: following a negative shock, they are reluctant to exit the foreign …