The time-series nature of mortality rates lends itself to processing through neural networks that are specialized to deal with sequential data, such as recurrent and convolutional networks. Although appealing intuitively, a naive implementation of these networks does not lead to enhanced...

In the field of mortality, the Lee–Carter based approach can be considered the milestone to forecast mortality rates among stochastic models. We could define a “Lee–Carter model family” that embraces all developments of this model, including its first formulation (1992) that remains the...

Recently, accurate forecasting of mortality rates with deep learning models has been investigated in several papers in the actuarial literature. Most of the models proposed to date are not explainable, making it difficult to communicate the basis on which mortality forecasts have been made. We...