Traditional with-profits pension saving schemes have been criticized for their opacity, plagued by embedded options and guarantees, and have recently created enormous problems for the solvency of the life insurance and pension industry. This has fueled creativity in the industry's product...

Recent reforms of public pension systems implemented in various countries, including Spain, have sought to ensure the sustainability of benefits. However, achieving a structural budget balance (i.e. long-run equality between income and expenditure) may result in a decrease in the replacement...