-achieving students and no significant effects among low achievers. Students in top tracking enjoyed multiple advantages, particularly a … concentration of high-performing peers and a very homogeneous classroom, that facilitated the teacher's work and increased students …' effort l evels. Bimodal classes fostered greater effort levels among top students, while teachers induced less competition …

model's predictions are tested using Dutch school-level data. Since students in the Netherlands have to participate both in …A simple model of decentralised graduation standards is presented. It is shown that a school whose students are … disadvantaged on the labour market applies less demanding standards because such students have less incentives to graduate. The …

-performing third grade students in Colombia, to study whether providing educational support to low-achieving students affects the …-form effect on higher-achieving students as a spillover effect within treated schools. We then estimate a linear-in-means model of … explore several mechanisms, including teachers’ effort, students’ misbehavior, and peer-to-peer interactions. Our findings show …