Economists tend to reduce all corruption to impersonal market-like transactions, ignoring the role of social ties in shaping corruption. In this paper, we show that this simplification substantially limits the understanding of corruption. We distinguish between market corruption (impersonal...

Multilevel modeling (MLM, also known as hierarchical linear modeling, HLM) is a methodological framework widely used in the social sciences to analyze data with a hierarchical structure, where lower units of aggregation are ‘nested' in higher units, including longitudinal data. In economics,...