This paper measures environmental efficiency (EE) and environmental productivity (EP) and analyzes differences in these across countries. It explores the macro-economic factors that could explain these differences and whether these differences can be explained by income levels and by the degree...

This study distinguishes factor/output substitution and shift of production technology frontiers. Our model includes by-product of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions, in which the function requires the simultaneous reductions of the emissions and expansion of good outputs. On world...