We examine the competitive effects of the vertical integration of gasoline refineries and retailers in the U …. Vertical foreclosure is found to increase the wholesale price of refined gasoline by 0.2 to 0.6 cents per gallon. -- vertical …

employ and limits their emissions based on the permits they hold. Refiners must also produce gasoline that varies in quality … link between gasoline content regulation and the compliance behavior of refineries. We find that in areas with more … stringent gasoline regulation, there was increased compliance on the part of firms. -- Clean Air Act ; compliance behavior …