Kazakhstan possesses extensive natural resources reserves that are expected to yield significant export revenues. Since Kazakhstan’s attaining independence in 1991, the composition of exports has changed in favor of energy-related sectors. In the context of such evidence and considerable...

We investigate how irreversibility in “dirty” and “clean” capital stocks affects optimal climate policy, from both theoretical and numerical perspectives. An increasing carbon tax will reduce investments in assets that pollute, and so reduce emissions in the short term: our...