Outward FDI does not necessarily reduce domestic employment – it often boosts it. Evidence from Japanese MNEs show that they increase domestic employment in Japan when they conduct market-seeking, strategic asset-seeking, or efficiency-seeking FDI to expand domestic operations into foreign...

To overcome the costs of doing business abroad, researchers have suggested either legitimacy- or efficiency-based solutions. However, both types of solutions still treat host-country customers as external to the theory. We highlight the role of customers in the international professional...