In defining selection bias, we have considered only the parallel universe of the treated group or the untreated group … paper, we redefined selection bias by considering all four existing universes in the real and hypothetical worlds, and we …

causality (for example, Simpson's paradox). Therefore, developing causal thinking in undergraduate statistics and data science … outcomes, specific to causality, are most important. In this paper, we propose a causality curriculum for undergraduate … that enables individuals to appropriately assess claims of causality based upon statistical evidence. They should …