The authors hypothesize that the effectiveness of external threats in raising workers' effort is mediated by, among other labor market conditions, the presence or absence of a powerful union. In particular, they argue that because powerful unions reduce the potency of the external threat of job...

The authors hypothesize that the effectiveness of external threats in raising workers' effort is mediated by, among other labor market conditions, the presence or absence of a powerful union. In particular, they argue that because powerful unions reduce the potency of the external threat of job...

This paper assesses how far the products of education are utilized in the British labour market, and how utilization has recently changed. We distinguish the concepts of 'under-education', 'over-education' and 'qualification inflation'. Using data from four surveys we find that over-education,...